Asthma is the common chronic
inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by variable and
recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and bronchospasm.
Symptoms include wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of
breath. Asthma is clinically classified according to the frequency of
symptoms, forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), and peak
expiratory flow rate. Asthma may also be classified as atopic
(extrinsic) or non-atopic (intrinsic).
It is thought to be caused by a
combination of genetic and environmental factors. Treatment of acute
symptoms is usually with an inhaled short-acting beta-2 agonist (such as
salbutamol). Symptoms can be prevented by avoiding triggers, such as
allergens and irritants, and by inhaling corticosteroids. Leukotriene
antagonists are less effective than corticosteroids and thus less
preferred.
Its diagnosis is usually made based on
the pattern of symptoms and/or response to therapy over time. The
prevalence of asthma has increased significantly since the 1970s. As of
2010, 300 million people were affected worldwide. In 2009 asthma caused
250,000 deaths globally. Despite this, with proper control of asthma
with step down therapy, prognosis is generally good.
Asthma is clinically classified
according to the frequency of symptoms, forced expiratory volume in 1
second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow rate. Asthma may also be
classified as atopic (extrinsic) or non-atopic (intrinsic), based on
whether symptoms are precipitated by allergens (atopic) or not
(non-atopic).
While asthma is classified based
on severity, at the moment there is no clear method for classifying
different subgroups of asthma beyond this system. Within the
classifications described above, although the cases of asthma respond to
the same treatment differs, thus it is clear that the cases within a
classification have significant differences. Finding ways to identify
subgroups that respond well to different types of treatments is a
current critical goal of asthma research.
Asthma was first recognized and
named by Hippocrates circa 450 BC. During the 1930s–50s, asthma was
considered as being one of the 'holy seven' psychosomatic illnesses. Its
aetiology was considered to be psychological, with treatment often
based on psychoanalysis and other 'talking cures'. As these
psychoanalysts interpreted the asthmatic wheeze as the suppressed cry of
the child for its mother, so they considered that the treatment of
depression was especially important for individuals with asthma. among
the first papers in modern medicine, is one that was published in 1873
and this paper tried to explain the pathophysiology of the disease. And
one of the first papers discussing treatment of asthma was released in
1872, the author concluded in his paper that asthma can be cured by
rubbing the chest with chloroform liniment. Among the first times
researches referred to medical treatment was at the year 1880, where Dr.
J. B. Berkart used IV method to administer doses of drug called
Pilocarpin. In the year 1886, F.H. Bosworth FH suspected a connection
between asthma and hay fever. Epinephrine was first referred to in the
treatment of asthma in 1905, and for acute asthma in 1910.
Although asthma is a chronic
obstructive condition, it is not considered as a part of chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease as this term refers specifically to
combinations of disease that are irreversible such as bronchiectasis,
chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. Unlike these diseases, the airway
obstruction in asthma is usually reversible; however, if left untreated,
the chronic inflammation of the lungs during asthma can become
irreversible obstruction due to airway remodeling. In contrast to
emphysema, asthma affects the bronchi, not the alveoli.
Brittle asthma
Brittle asthma is a term used to
describe two types of asthma, distinguishable by recurrent, severe
attacks. Type 1 brittle asthma refers to disease with wide peak flow
variability, despite intense medication. Type 2 brittle asthma describes
background well-controlled asthma, with sudden severe exacerbations.
Asthma attack
An acute asthma exacerbation is
commonly referred to as an asthma attack. The classic symptoms are
shortness of breath, wheezing, and chest tightness. While these are the
primary symptoms of asthma, some people present primarily with coughing,
and in severe cases, air motion may be significantly impaired such that
no wheezing is heard.
Signs which occur during an
asthma attack include the use of accessory muscles of respiration
(sternocleidomastoid and scalene muscles of the neck), there may be a
paradoxical pulse (a pulse that is weaker during inhalation and stronger
during exhalation), and over-inflation of the chest. A blue color of
the skin and nails may occur from lack of oxygen.
In a mild exacerbation the peak
expiratory flow rate (PEFR) is ≥200 L/min or ≥50% of the predicted best.
Moderate is defined as between 80 and 200 L/min or 25% and 50% of the
predicted best while severe is defined as ≤ 80 L/min or ≤25% of the
predicted best.
Asthma as a result of (or
worsened by) workplace exposures is a commonly reported occupational
respiratory disease. Still most cases of occupational asthma are not
reported or are not recognized as such. Estimates by the American
Thoracic Society (2004) suggest that 15–23% of new-onset asthma cases in
adults are work related. In one study monitoring workplace asthma by
occupation, the highest percentage of cases occurred among operators,
fabricators, and laborers (32.9%), followed by managerial and
professional specialists (20.2%), and in technical, sales, and
administrative support jobs (19.2%). Most cases were associated with the
manufacturing (41.4%) and services (34.2%) industries. Animal proteins,
enzymes, flour, natural rubber latex, and certain reactive chemicals
are commonly associated with work-related asthma. When recognized, these
hazards can be mitigated, dropping the risk of disease.
Signs and symptoms
Common symptoms of asthma
include wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness and coughing.
Symptoms are often worse at night or in the early morning, or in
response to exercise or cold air. Some people with asthma only rarely
experience symptoms, usually in response to triggers, whereas other may
have marked persistent airflow obstruction.
Cause
Asthma is caused by
environmental and genetic factors. These factors influence how severe
asthma is and how well it responds to medication. The interaction is
complex and not fully understood.
Studying the prevalence of
asthma and related diseases such as eczema and hay fever have yielded
important clues about some key risk factors. The strongest risk factor
for developing asthma is a history of atopic disease; this increases
one's risk of hay fever by up to 5x and the risk of asthma by 3-4x. In
children between the ages of 3-14, a positive skin test for allergies
and an increase in immunoglobulin E increases the chance of having
asthma. In adults, the more allergens one reacts positively to in a skin
test, the higher the odds of having asthma.
Because much allergic asthma is
associated with sensitivity to indoor allergens and because Western
styles of housing favor greater exposure to indoor allergens, much
attention has focused on increased exposure to these allergens in
infancy and early childhood as a primary cause of the rise in asthma.
Primary prevention studies aimed at the aggressive reduction of airborne
allergens in a home with infants have shown mixed findings. Strict
reduction of dust mite allergens, for example, reduces the risk of
allergic sensitization to dust mites, and modestly reduces the risk of
developing asthma up until the age of 8 years old. However, studies also
showed that the effects of exposure to cat and dog allergens worked in
the converse fashion; exposure during the first year of life was found
to reduce the risk of allergic sensitization and of developing asthma
later in life.
The inconsistency of this data
has inspired research into other facets of Western society and their
impact upon the prevalence of asthma. One subject that appears to show a
strong correlation is the development of asthma and obesity. In the
United Kingdom and United States, the rise in asthma prevalence has
echoed an almost epidemic rise in the prevalence of obesity. In Taiwan,
symptoms of allergies and airway hyper-reactivity increased in
correlation with each 20% increase in body-mass index. Several factors
associated with obesity may play a role in the pathogenesis of asthma,
including decreased respiratory function due to a buildup of adipose
tissue (fat) and the fact that adipose tissue leads to a
pro-inflammatory state, which has been associated with non-eosinophilic
asthma.
Asthma has been associated with
Churg–Strauss syndrome, and individuals with immunologically mediated
urticaria may also experience systemic symptoms with generalized
urticaria, rhino-conjunctivitis, orolaryngeal and gastrointestinal
symptoms, asthma, and, at worst, anaphylaxis. Additionally, adult-onset
asthma has been associated with periocular xanthogranulomas.
Many environmental risk factors have been associated with asthma development and morbidity in children.
Maternal tobacco smoking during
pregnancy and after delivery is associated with a greater risk of
asthma-like symptoms, wheezing, and respiratory infections during
childhood. Low air quality, from traffic pollution or high ozone levels,
has been repeatedly associated with increased asthma morbidity and has a
suggested association with asthma development that needs further
research.
Recent studies show a
relationship between exposure to air pollutants (e.g. from traffic) and
childhood asthma. This research finds that both the occurrence of the
disease and exacerbation of childhood asthma are affected by outdoor air
pollutants. High levels of endotoxin exposure may contribute to asthma
risk.
Viral respiratory infections are
not only one of the leading triggers of an exacerbation but may
increase one's risk of developing asthma especially in young children.
Psychological stress has long
been suspected of being an asthma trigger, but only in recent decades
has convincing scientific evidence substantiated this hypothesis. Rather
than stress directly causing the asthma symptoms, it is thought that
stress modulates the immune system to increase the magnitude of the
airway inflammatory response to allergens and irritants.
Antibiotic use early in life has
been linked to development of asthma in several examples; it is thought
that antibiotics make children who are predisposed to atopic immune
responses susceptible to development of asthma because they modify gut
flora, and thus the immune system (as described by the hygiene
hypothesis). The hygiene hypothesis (see below) is a hypothesis about
the cause of asthma and other allergic disease, and is supported by
epidemiologic data for asthma. All of these things may negatively affect
exposure to beneficial bacteria and other immune system modulators that
are important during development, and thus may cause an increased risk
for asthma and allergy.
Caesarean sections have been
associated with asthma, possibly because of modifications to the immune
system (as described by the hygiene hypothesis).
Respiratory infections such as
rhinovirus, Chlamydia pneumoniae and Bordetella pertussis are correlated
with asthma exacerbations.
Beta blocker medications such as metoprolol may trigger asthma in those who are susceptible.
Observational studies have found
that indoor exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) may be one of
the triggers of asthma, however experimental studies have not confirmed
these observations. Even VOC exposure at low levels has been associated
with an increase in the risk of pediatric asthma. Because there are so
many VOCs in the air, measuring total VOC concentrations in the indoor
environment may not represent the exposure of individual compounds.
Exposure to VOCs is associated with an increase in the IL-4 producing
Th2 cells and a reduction in IFN-γ producing Th1 cells. Thus the
mechanism of action of VOC exposure may be allergic sensitization
mediated by a Th2 cell phenotype. Different individual variations in
discomfort, from no response to excessive response, were seen in one of
the studies. These variations may be due to the development of tolerance
during exposure. Another study has concluded that formaldehyde may
cause asthma-like symptoms. Low VOC emitting materials should be used
while doing repairs or renovations which decreases the symptoms related
to asthma caused by VOCs and formaldehyde. In another study "the indoor
concentration of aliphatic compounds (C8-C11), butanols, and
2,2,4-trimethyl 1,3-pentanediol diisobutyrate (TXIB) was significantly
elevated in newly painted dwellings. The total indoor VOC was about 100
micrograms/m3 higher in dwellings painted in the last year". The author
concluded that some VOCs may cause inflammatory reactions in the airways
and may be the reason for asthmatic symptoms.
There is a significant
association between asthma-like symptoms (wheezing) among preschool
children and the concentration of DEHP (pthalates) in indoor
environment. DEHP (di-ethylhexyl phthalate) is a plasticizer that is
commonly used in building material. The hydrolysis product of DEHP
(di-ethylhexyl phthalate) is MEHP (Mono-ethylhexyl phthalate) which
mimics the prostaglandins and thromboxanes in the airway leading to
symptoms related to asthma. Another mechanism that has been studied
regarding phthalates causation of asthma is that high phthalates level
can "modulate the murine immune response to a coallergen". Asthma can
develop in the adults who come in contact with heated PVC fumes. Two
main type of phthalates, namely n-butyl benzyl phthalate (BBzP) and
di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), have been associated between the
concentration of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) used as flooring and the dust
concentrations. Water leakage were associated more with BBzP, and
buildings construction were associated with high concentrations of DEHP.
Asthma has been shown to have a relationship with plaster wall
materials and wall-to wall carpeting. The onset of asthma was also
related to the floor–leveling plaster at home. Therefore, it is
important to understand the health aspect of these materials in the
indoor surfaces.
Hygiene hypothesis
One theory for the cause of the
increase in asthma prevalence worldwide is the "hygiene hypothesis"
—that the rise in the prevalence of allergies and asthma is a direct and
unintended result of reduced exposure to a wide variety of different
bacteria and virus types in modern societies, or modern hygienic
practices preventing childhood infections. Children living in less
hygienic environments (East Germany vs. West Germany, families with many
children, day care environments) tend to have lower incidences of
asthma and allergic diseases. This seems to run counter to the logic
that viruses are often causative agents in exacerbation of asthma.
Additionally, other studies have shown that viral infections of the
lower airway may in some cases induce asthma, as a history of
bronchiolitis or croup in early childhood is a predictor of asthma risk
in later life. Studies which show that upper respiratory tract
infections are protective against asthma risk also tend to show that
lower respiratory tract infections conversely tend to increase the risk
of asthma
Many asthma patients, like those
who suffer from other chronic disorders, use alternative treatments;
surveys show that roughly 50% of asthma patients use some form of
unconventional therapy. There is little data to support the
effectiveness of most of these therapies. Evidence is insufficient to
support the usage of Vitamin C. Acupuncture is not recommended for the
treatment as there is insufficient evidence to support its use. Air
ionisers show no evidence that they improve asthma symptoms or benefit
lung function; this applied equally to positive and negative ion
generators.
Dust mite control measures,
including air filtration, chemicals to kill mites, vacuuming, mattress
covers and others methods had no effect on asthma symptoms. However, a
review of 30 studies found that "bedding encasement might be an
effective asthma treatment under some conditions" (when the patient is
highly allergic to dust mite and the intervention reduces the dust mite
exposure level from high levels to low levels). Washing laundry/rugs in
hot water was also found to improve control of allergens.
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