Borobudur temple in Indonesia

Borobudur is the name of a Buddhist temple located at Borobudur, Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. Location of the temple is about 100 km southwest of Manila, 86 km to the west of Surakarta, and 40 km northwest of Yogyakarta. Stupa shaped temple was founded by the Mahayana Buddhists around AD 800-AD in the reign of an dynasty dynasty. The monument comprises six square terraces on which there are three circular courtyard, the walls adorned with original 2672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues there.

[1] The main stupa in the middle of the largest teletak once

crowned this building, surrounded by three rows of round 72 perforated stupas in which there are statues of Buddha sitting cross-legged in the lotus position perfectly with the mudra (hand position) Dharmachakra mudra (turning the wheel of dharma).

This monument is a model of the universe and built as a shrine to honor the Buddha also functions as a place of pilgrimage to guide mankind to switch from natural lust to enlightenment and wisdom according to the teachings of Buddha. [2] The pilgrims enter through the east side starting at the base of the temple ritual by walking around the sacred building in a clockwise direction, while continuing to go up to the next steps through the three levels of the realm in Buddhist cosmology. The third level is Kamadhatu (the realm of the passions), Rupadhatu (sphere shape), and Arupadhatu (the realm of intangibles). In this way of pilgrims walking through the hallway and staircase with a series of witnessed no less than 1460 beautifully carved relief panels on the wall and balustrade.

According to historical evidence, Borobudur abandoned in the 14th century as the weakening of the influence of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms in Java as well as from the influence of Islam. [3] The world began to recognize the existence of these buildings have since been found in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, who was then as the British Governor General of Java. Since then Borobudur has suffered a series of rescue and restoration efforts. Largest restoration project was held in the period 1975 to 1982 the efforts of the Government of the Republic of Indonesia and UNESCO, and historic sites are included in the list of World Heritage Sites. [4]

Borobudur is still used as a place of religious pilgrimage; each year Buddhists who come from all over Indonesia and abroad gather at Borobudur to commemorate Vesak Trisuci. In the world of tourism, tourism Borobudur is Indonesia's single most visited by tourists. Name Borobudur

Borobudur stupa with a range of hills Menoreh. For centuries this sacred building had forgotten.

In the Indonesian language, ancient religious buildings called temples; term candi is also used more broadly to refer to all buildings from the ancient Hindu-Buddhist period in the archipelago, such as gates, gate, and petirtaan (swimming baths and showers). The origin of the name Borobudur is not clear, [8] although it was the original name of many temples in Indonesia is not known. [8] The name Borobudur was first written in the book "History of Java" by Sir Thomas Raffles. [9] Raffles wrote about a monument called Borobudur, but there are no older documents that mention exact same name. [8] The only old Javanese manuscript that gives a clue as to the Buddhist shrine of Borobudur is probably referring to Nagarakretagama, written by the MPU Prapanca in 1365. [10]

Bore-Budur name, who later wrote of Borobudur, probably written Raffles in English grammar to refer to the nearest village to the temple that the village of Bore (Boro); most of the temples are often named after the village where the temple stood. Raffles also suggested that the term 'Budur' may be related to Buda in Javanese term meaning "ancient" - it means, 'ancient Boro'. [8] However, other archaeologists think that the name comes from the term bhudhara Budur which means mountain. [ 11]

Many theories attempt to explain the name of this temple. One of them states that the name is probably derived from the word Sambharabhudhara, which means "mountain" (bhudara) where the slopes are located terraces. In addition there are some other folk etymology. Suppose that the word comes from the word Borobudur "the Buddha" is due to shift the sound to Borobudur. Another explanation is that the name comes from two words "coal" and "beduhur". The word bara said to have originated from the word monastery, while there is also another explanation in which the coal comes from the Sanskrit language which means temple or monastery and beduhur meaning is "high", or remind the Balinese language means "above". So the point is a convent or dormitory that is located on high ground.

Historian J.G. de Casparis in his dissertation to earn his doctorate in 1950 argued that Borobudur is a place of worship. Based on the inscriptions and the Tri Tepusan Karangtengah, Casparis estimate Borobudur founder of the dynasty was the king of Mataram dynasty named Samaratungga, who do the construction around the year 824 AD The giant new building can be completed at the time of her daughter, Queen Pramudawardhani. Borobudur construction expected to take half a century. Karangtengah also mentioned in the inscription on the conferment of land sima (tax-free land) by Cri Kahulunan (Pramudawardhani) to maintain Kamulan called Bhūmisambhāra. [12] The term itself comes from Kamulan first word that means the place of origin, a shrine to honor ancestors, probably the ancestor of the dynasty Sailendra. Casparis estimates that Bhumi Sambhāra Bhudhāra in Sanskrit which means "Mount of the set of ten levels boddhisattwa virtue", is the original name of Borobudur. [13]

Surroundings

Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut lying in a straight line that shows the unity symbol

Located about 40 kilometers (25 miles) northwest of the city of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is situated on a hill on a plain surrounded by mountains two pairs of twins; Mount Sundoro-cleft in the northwest and Merbabu-Merapi in the north, in the north there is a hill Tidar, closer to the south there is a range of hills Menoreh, as well as the temple is located near the confluence of two rivers, namely the Progo and the Elo River in the east. According to Javanese legend, the area known as the plains of Kedu is a place that is sacred in the belief of Java and hailed as the 'Garden of Java' because of its natural beauty and fertility of the soil. [1

Three series of temples

In addition to Borobudur, there are several Buddhist and Hindu temples in the region. At the time of the discovery and restoration in the early 20th-century Buddhist temples are found Mendut and Pawon who lay stretched in a straight line. [15] Originally thought to only a coincidence, but according to local myth, there is first paved road which is lined on either side of the balustrade that connects the third temple. No physical evidence of stone and lined the road fenced and maybe this is just a myth, but experts suspect there is a symbol of the unity of the third temple. These three temples (Borobudur-Pawon-Mendut) have similar architectural style and variety of dressing and is derived from the same period which strengthens the case of a connection between the third temple ritual. There must be a sacred association, but how was the religious rituals of pilgrimage is done, it is not certain. [10]

In addition to the temple and Pawon Mendut, around Borobudur also found several other ancient relics, including a variety of findings such as pottery and stoneware jugs which showed that around Borobudur first there are some residential areas. Archaeological findings around Borobudur is now stored at the Museum Karmawibhangga Borobudur, located in the north of the temple adjacent to the Museum Ocean Mercury. Not how far north Pawon found ruins of the former Hindu temple called Candi Banon. At this temple was found a few statues of Hindu gods in a state primary that is good enough Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma and Ganesha. However, the original stone temple Banon found very little so it is not possible to do reconstruction. At the time of its discovery Banon statues transported to Batavia (now Jakarta) and is now kept at the National Museum of Indonesia.

Ancient lake

Borobudur in the middle of the plain nature greenish Kedu. Allegedly used the area around Borobudur is an ancient lake.

Unlike other temples built on flat ground, Borobudur was built on a hill with a height of 265 m (870 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the base of an ancient lake has dried up. [16] The existence of this ancient lake the subject of heated debate among archaeologists in the 20th century, and raises suspicions that Borobudur was built on the edge or even in the middle of the lake. In 1931, an artist and expert on Hindu Buddhist architecture, WOJ Nieuwenkamp, ​​proposed the theory that the Kedu Plain was once a lake, and built Borobudur symbolize the lotus flower floating on the surface of the lake. [11] either in the form of a lotus flower Padma (red lotus), utpala (blue lotus), or Kumuda (white lotus ) can be found in all Buddhist iconography of religious art; often gripped by Boddhisatwa as like (symbol regalia), a cushion or as a pedestal throne Buddha stupa. The architecture of Borobudur itself resembles a lotus flower, and Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in schools of Mahayana Buddhist religious texts (that Buddhism spread to East Asia). Three circular courtyard at the top of Borobudur is also thought to symbolize the lotus petals. [16] However Nieuwenkamp theory that sounds amazing and fantastic rebuttal to reap many of the archaeologists; on land around the monument has been discovered archeological evidence that proves that the around Borobudur temple during the construction of this is dry land, not the ancient lakebed.

Meanwhile, geologists would support the view Nieuwenkamp to show evidence of sediment deposition in the mud near the site. [17] A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen analysis of samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of an ancient lake in the neighborhood of Borobudur, [16] that reinforce the idea Nieuwenkamp. This ancient lake surface elevation up and down change from time to time, and evidence suggests that the base of the hill near Borobudur never again submerged in the water and into the lake surrounding the 13th century and the 14th. River flow and volcanic activity is thought to have helped contribute to changing the landscape and topography of the surrounding environment, including Borobudur lake. One of the most active volcano Mount Merapi in Indonesia is located quite close to Borobudur and has been active since the Pleistocene. [18]

History

Development

Paintings by G.B. Hooijer (made from 1916 to 1919 period) to reconstruct the atmosphere at Borobudur in its heyday

There were no written evidence explaining who built Borobudur and what its usefulness. [19] When construction is expected based on the comparison between types of letters are written at the foot of enclosed Karmawibhangga with type characters that are commonly used in royal inscriptions century 8th and 9th. Estimated Borobudur was built around 800 AD. [19] The time frame is consistent with the period between 760 and 830 AD, the dynasty dynasty's heyday in Central Java, [20] which was then influenced Srivijaya Empire. Construction of Borobudur is expected to spend the next 75 years and completed in the reign of Samaratungga in the year 825. [21] [22]

There is confusion about whether the facts of the ruling king of Java at that time a Hindu or Buddhist. Sailendra dynasty known as Mahayana Buddhists are devout, but through the inscription Sojomerto findings suggest that they may originally Hindu Shiva. [21] In the period that was built many Hindu and Buddhist temples in the plains Kedu. Based on the inscription Canggal, in the year 732 AD, the king ordered the construction of religious Sanjaya Shiva shrine was built in the hills Shiwalingga Wukir Mountain, located just 10 km (6.2 miles) east of Borobudur. [23] Borobudur Buddhist Temple was built during the period of nearly along with the temples at Prambanan Plain, Borobudur however are thought to have been completed around 825 AD, twenty-five years earlier before the commencement of construction of the Shiva temple Prambanan about the year 850 AD

Construction of Buddhist temples - including the Borobudur - as it is possible because Sanjaya heir, Rakai Panangkaran gave permission to build a temple for the Buddhists. [24] In fact, to show respect, Panangkaran Kalasan to confer the village sangha (Buddhist community), for maintenance and financing The temple was built to glorify Kalasan Bodhisattwadewi Tara, as mentioned in the inscription dates to 778 AD Kalasan. [24] These directives understood by archaeologists, that the ancient Javanese society, religion was never an issue that can reap the conflict, the religious king exemplified Hindu could support and fund the construction of Buddhist temples, and vice versa. [25] However, there are allegedly dynastic rivalry between the two kingdoms at that time - a dynasty dynasty dynasty embraced Buddhism and the worship of Shiva Sanjaya - Sanjaya dynasty that later won the battle of the year 856 in the hills of Ratu Boko. [26] Ambiguity also arises about the temple at Prambanan Jonggrang Lara, who believed a magnificent temple built by the winner of Rakai Pikatan in response Sanjaya dynasty to rival the splendor of Borobudur's dynastic dynasty, [26] but many believe that the there is an atmosphere of tolerance and togetherness of peace between the two is that the Sailendra dynasty is also involved in the development of Shiva temple at Prambanan

Stages of development of Borobudur

Archeologists suspect that the preliminary design of Borobudur is a huge single stupa crowning peak. Suspected mass of the giant stupa unusually large and heavy it harm the body and legs so that the architect designer Borobudur temple decided to dismantle this giant stupa and replaced by three rows of small stupas and the main stupa as it is now. Here are the approximate stage of development of Borobudur:

    The first phase: The construction of Borobudur was unknown (estimated period of 750 and 850 M). Borobudur is built on a natural hill, the top of the hill is flattened and expanded flat yard. Indeed Borobudur is not entirely made of andesite, the hills the soil compacted and covered stone structure that resembles a shell that encloses the hill land. The remaining part of the hill covered stone structure layer by layer. Was originally built storey apartment layout. It seems designed as a pyramid staircase, but later changed. As there is evidence of a demolished apartment layout. Built to cover the first three steps of the pyramid structure of the original staircase.

    The second stage: The addition of two square steps, balustrade and a circular railroad was built directly on top of a huge single stupa.

    Phase three: There is a change design, steps on the circle with a single parent of stupas demolished and replaced by three railroad circles. Stupas built smaller circular march on the steps of this court with a huge main stupa in the middle. For some reason the foundation is widened, constructed additional foot that wraps the foot of the original closing the relief Karmawibhangga. Archaeologists assume that the Borobudur stupa was originally designed in the form of a single, very large terrace crowned shelf-shelf square. But the great stupa is too heavy to push the structure out of shifted skew. Keep in mind that the core Borobudur hill land is at the top so that the pressure will be distributed to the outer side of the bottom so that Borobudur threatened mudslides and collapsed. That's why it was decided to dismantle a single large stupa, and replace it with a circular terraces are decorated with rows of small stupa stupa berterawang and only one parent. To shore up the walls of the temple that no avalanche then added an additional foot structure that encloses the foot of the original. This is a reinforcing structure and functioning like a belt that binds to the temple did not collapse and fall out, while hiding the relief on the part Kamadhatu Karmawibhangga

    The fourth stage: There are minor changes such as improvement of relief, the addition of the outer balustrades, stairs and changes of the goal arch doors, as well as widening of the foot.

Borobudur abandoned

Eruption of Mount Merapi suspected as the main cause of Borobudur ignore

Borobudur is hidden and neglected for centuries buried under layers of volcanic ash soil and then covered with trees and shrubs so that Borobudur when it really resembles a hill. The real reason for the Borobudur abandoned the cause is still unknown. Not known exactly since when the building is no longer a sacred pilgrimage center of Buddhists. In the span of 928 and 1006, King mpu Sindok Medang kingdom moved the capital to the region of East Java, after a series of volcanic eruptions; not clear whether these factors cause the Borobudur abandoned, but some sources suspect that it is possible Borobudur is becoming obsolete in this period. [3] [16] The holy building is mentioned vaguely about the year 1365, the MPU Prapanca Nagarakretagama written in the script during the Majapahit empire. He mentions the "Temple in Budur". In addition Soekmono (1976) also proposed the popular opinion that this temple was started to really abandoned since a population of about switching to the Islamic faith in the 15th century. [3]

This monument is not entirely forgotten, through switching of Borobudur folklore as evidence of the triumph of the past into a story that is more associated with the superstition that bad luck, misfortune and suffering. Written two Java Chronicle of the 18th century mention the bad luck associated with this monument. According to Babad Tanah Jawi (History of Java), this monument is a fatal factor for Mas Fund, dissidents who rebelled to Pakubuwono I, king of the Sultanate of Mataram in 1709. [3] mentioned that the hillside "Redi Borobudur" besieged and the insurgents were defeated and put to death by king. In the Chronicle Mataram (Mataram History), the monument is associated with bad luck Monconagoro prince, crown prince visited the Sultanate of Yogyakarta that this monument in 1757. [28] Although there are taboos that forbid anyone to visit this monument, "the Prince to come and visit the warrior imprisoned in a cage (buddha statues found in the stupa berterawang) ". After returning to the palace, the prince fell ill and died a day later. In the Javanese belief in the Islamic Mataram, the ruins of the building is considered the enshrinement bersemayamnya spirits and considered wingit (armature) that is associated with bad luck or misfortune that might befall anyone who visits this site and disturbing. Although scientific thought, maybe after the site was neglected and covered with bushes, where it was once a hotbed of disease outbreaks such as dengue or malaria.

Recovery

The first photograph of Borobudur by Isidore van Kinsbergen (1873) after the monument was cleaned from the plants growing on the temple. Dutch flag appears on the main stupa of the temple.

The highest terrace after the restoration of Van Erp. The main stupa has a tower with chattra (umbrella) stacking three.

After the Anglo-Dutch War in the fight over the island of Java, Java under British rule (British) during the period 1811 to 1816. Thomas Stamford Raffles was appointed as Governor-General, and he has a special interest in the history of Java. He collects antique artifacts of ancient Javanese art and make a note of Javanese history and culture gleaned from his encounter with local people in his travels around Java. At the inspection visit in Semarang in 1814, he was notified about the existence of a large monument deep in the woods near the village Bumisegoro. [28] Because of his absence and his duties as Governor-General, he can not go alone to find the building and sent HC Cornelius, a Dutch engineer, to investigate the existence of this large building. In two months, Cornelius and their 200 subordinates to cut down trees and shrubs that grow on the hill of Borobudur and clean up soil that buried this temple. Because of the threat of landslides, it can not dig up and clean up all of the hall. He reported his findings to Raffles including various drawings give a sketch of the temple of Borobudur. Although the invention is only mentioned a few sentences, Raffles is credited for inventing the back of this monument, as well as the world's attention on the existence of this monument is ever lost. [9]

Hartmann, a Dutch government official in the Residency Kedu Cornelius continued work in 1835 and eventually all the buildings have been excavated and visible. Borobudur's interest in more personal than his duty. Hartmann did not write reports on their activities, in particular, it was rumored that he had found a large buddha statue in the main stupa. [29] In 1842, Hartmann investigated the main stupa despite what he found remains a mystery because the inside of the stupa is empty.

Dutch East Indies government commissioned F.C. Wilsen, a Dutch engineer engineering officer, he learned of this monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. J.F.G. Brumund also appointed to conduct more detailed research on this monument, the completion of the 1859. The Government plans to publish articles based on research that has Brumund sketches Wilsen work, but Brumund refused to cooperate. Dutch East Indies government then commissioned another scientist, C. Leemans, who compiled a monograph based on the source of Brumund and Wilsen. In 1873, the first monographs and more detailed research on the Borobudur was published, followed by editions in French translation a year later. [29] The first photo of this monument was taken in 1873 by a Dutch engrafi, Isidore van Kinsbergen. [30]

Award on this site is growing slowly. For a long time Borobudur has been a source of souvenirs and income for the thieves, plunderers of the temple, and collectors' artifact hunters ". Head of statue of Buddha is the most often stolen. For stealing all the buddha statues are too heavy and bulky, statues deliberately turned upside down and dropped by the thief to his head severed. Because it is now at the Borobudur Buddhist statues are found without a head. Buddha heads of Borobudur has long been the target of antiquities collectors and museums around the world. In 1882, chief inspector of cultural artifacts recommended that Borobudur reliefs dismantled entirely and moved to the museum due to unstable conditions, uncertainties and theft are rampant in the monument. [30] As a result, the government appointed Groenveldt, an archaeologist, to hold a thorough investigation of the site and into account the actual conditions of this complex; report stated that the concerns are exaggerated and suggested that these buildings were left intact and not be disassembled to be moved.

Borobudur temple was stolen as part of souvenir items, statues and carvings were hunted collector of antiques. Act of looting of historic sites is even one of them condoned the colonial government. In 1896, the King of Thailand, Chulalongkorn during a visit to Java in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) expressed interest in having some part of Borobudur. Dutch East Indies government permit and presented eight carts full of statues and the building of Borobudur. Artifacts are trafficked to Thailand, among others; five statues of Buddha along with 30 stone in relief, two statues of lions, some of kala-shaped stone, stairs and gates, and guards Dwarapala statues that once stood on the Mount Dagi - a few hundred yards north-west of Borobudur. Some of these artifacts, the stone lions and Dwarapala, now on display at the National Museum in Bangkok. [31]

emugaran

Poster of 1971 called for efforts to rescue Borobudur

Borobudur attracted attention back in 1885, when Yzerman, Chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, discover the hidden leg. [32] The photos show the reliefs on the hidden foot was made in the period 1890-1891. [33] These findings prompted the government to take the Dutch East Indies steps to preserve this monument. In 1900, the government established a commission consisting of three officers to investigate this monument: Brandes, an art historian, Theodoor van Erp, an engineer who is also a member of the Dutch army, and Van de Kamer, engineers construction experts from the Department of Public Works.

Planting of concrete and PVC pipe to improve drainage systems in the restoration of Borobudur in 1973

In 1902, the commission proposed three-step plan of conservation of Borobudur to the government. First, the immediate hazards must be addressed by adjusting the angles of the building, threatening to move the stone beside stone, strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches, gates, stupas and the main stupa. Second, the fence in our temples, maintain and repair the drainage system to fix the floor and shower. Third, all the loose rock and loose should be removed, the monument was cleaned up to the balustrade of the first, the broken stone is moved and restored the main stupa. The total cost required at the time were estimated at around 48 800 Gulden.

Restoration was done in the period 1907 and 1911, using the principle anastilosis and led Theodor van Erp. [34] the first seven months was spent to excavate the ground around the monument to find missing Buddha heads and panel stones. Van Erp dismantle and rebuild the three circular terraces and stupas on the top. In the process, Van Erp discovered many things that could be improved; he submitted another proposal that was approved with an additional budget of 34 600 guilders. Van Erp reconstruction further, he even accurately reconstruct chattra (umbrella rock stacking three) that crowned the top of Borobudur. At first glance Borobudur had been restored as in its heyday. However, reconstruction chattra only use the original stones and only a little fiction about. Because it can not be accounted for authenticity, Van Erp unload themselves part chattra. Now the summit of Borobudur chattra mastaka or stored at the Museum stacking three Karmawibhangga Borobudur.

Due to the limited budget, this restoration was only focused on cleaning and stone sculpture, Van Erp did not solve the problem of drainage and water system. In 15 years, the gallery walls and sloping reliefs showing cracks and damage. [34] Van Erp used concrete which causes the formation of crystals of calcium hydroxide and alkali salts are spread throughout the building and damaging the stone temple. This causes a problem that needed further renovation.

Small-scale restoration carried out since then, but not enough to provide complete protection. In the late 1960s, the Government of Indonesia has submitted a request to the international community for a massive renovation in order to protect this monument. In 1973, a master plan to restore Borobudur is made. [35] Government of Indonesia and UNESCO to take comprehensive steps to repair the monument is in a major project between 1975 and 1982. [34] The foundation of reinforced and cleaned all the 1460 relief panels. This restoration was done by dismantling the entire five square terraces and repairing drainage systems by embedding water channels into the monument. Filter and water-resistant layer is added. This colossal project involved 600 people to restore the monument and cost a total of 6,901,243 U.S. dollars. [36] After the renovation, enter the Borobudur UNESCO into the list of World Heritage Sites in 1991. [4] Borobudur Cultural fit in the criteria (i) "represent a masterpiece of human genius kretivitas", (ii) "shows the important exchange of human values ​​in a given time within a cultural area in the world, the development of architecture and technology, monumental arts, town planning and landscape design" , and (vi) "clearly dab directly linked to an event or living traditions, with ideas or with beliefs, with artistic works of art and literature that have outstanding universal significance". [4]

Contemporary events

Pilgrim monk was meditating in the courtyard of the peak

Tourists in Borobudur

After a massive refurbishment in 1973, supported by UNESCO, [35] Borobudur back into a religious and pilgrimage centers of Buddhism. Once a year during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia to commemorate the holy day of Vesak, which commemorates the day of birth, death and enlightenment of Siddhartha Gautama, especially events that reached the highest level of wisdom of the Buddha Shakyamuni. Vesak is a national holiday in Indonesia [37] and a memorial service was centered on three main Buddhist temple with a ritual walk from Mendut Pawon and procession toward ending at Borobudur. [38]

On January 21, 1985, nine of nine stupas were badly damaged due to bombing. [39] In 1991 an extreme wing Muslim preachers who are blind, Husein Ali Al Habsyie, sentenced to life in prison for acting as the brain a series of bomb attacks in the mid-1980s, including attack on Borobudur temple. [40] Two members of extreme right-wing groups djatuhi 20-year sentence in 1986 and the other received a sentence of 13 years in prison.

Ballet "Borobudur Masterpiece" was held in Borobudur

This monument is the single most tourist visited in Indonesia. In 1974 as many as 260 000 36 000 tourists whom are foreign tourists have visited this monument. [6] This figure increased to 2.5 million visitors annually (80% were domestic tourists) in the mid-1990s, before the Asian financial crisis of 1997. [7] However, tourism development does not involve local people criticized that some local conflicts are common. [6] In 2003, residents and small scale entrepreneurs around Borobudur held a meeting with the reading of poetry and protest, reject the provincial government plans to plans to build a shopping complex three-story called 'Java World'. [41] The efforts of local people to earn a living from the tourism sector Borobudur has increased the number of small businesses around Borobudur. However, their efforts to earn a living often even disturbing the comfort of visitors. For example, traders souvenir peddlers insist that interfere with his merchandise; spread of market stalls, souvenir stalls, so when they want out of the temple, visitors are led to walk away instead turned into the labyrinth of souvenir market. If not well then it makes all the more chaotic the Borobudur temple complex.

On May 27, 2006, an earthquake measuring 6.2 shook the southern coast of the scale of Central Java. Natural disasters are destroying the area with the most victims in Yogyakarta, but Borobudur remained intact. [42]

On August 28, 2006 symposium titled Trail of Civilizations (traces of) was held at the initiative of the Governor of Borobudur in Central Java and the Ministry of Tourism and Culture, was also present representatives of UNESCO and the Buddhist-majority countries in Southeast Asia, like Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia. The highlight is a colossal ballet performances "Borobudur Masterpiece" in front of the temple of Borobudur. This dance was created with a dance style based on traditional Javanese gamelan music, and fashion, tells about the history of the construction of Borobudur. After the symposium, Borobudur Masterpiece ballet staged again several times, especially ahead of Vesak is usually also attended by the President of the Republic of Indonesia.

Restoration of the memorial stone with the help of UNESCO's Borobudur temple

UNESCO identifies three critical issues in conservation Borobudur: (i) vandalism or destruction of the visitors (ii) soil erosion in the southeastern part of the site; (iii) analysis and restore the missing parts. [43] Land of the soil, several times earthquakes and heavy rain could destabilize this structure. Earthquakes are the most severe factors, because not only can rock fall and arch collapses, the land itself moving wavy which can damage the structure. [43] The increasing popularity of stupa attract many visitors who are mostly citizens of Indonesia. Although there are many warning signs not to touch anything, pengumandangan warnings through loudspeakers and the guards, vandalism of graffiti vandalism and pencorat-reliefs and statues often the case, it is clearly damaging the site. In 2009, there was no system to limit the number of tourists could visit per day, or apply each visit must be accompanied by a guide so that visitors are always in control

Rehabilitation

Borobudur is affected by the eruption of Mount Merapi in October adan November 2010. Merapi volcanic ash from within the temple complex covers 28 kilometers (17 miles) west-southwest of the crater of Merapi. Volcanic ash layer reached a thickness of 2.5 centimeters (1 in) [44] cover the building of the temple when the eruption of 3 to 5 November 2010, the dust also kill plants around, and other experts are concerned that volcanic dust is chemically acidic rocks can damage historic buildings this. Temple complex was closed 5 to 9 November 2010 to clean the dust luruhan. [45] [46]

Looking at the Borobudur rehabilitation efforts after the 2010 eruption of Merapi, UNESCO has contributed $ 3 million dollars to fund rehabilitation efforts. Cleaning the temple of volcanic ash deposits will spend at least 6 months, followed by reforestation and tree planting in the neighborhood to stabilize the temperature, and finally revive the social and economic life of local communities. [47] More than 55,000 blocks of stone to repair the temple should be demolished water system and drainage system is clogged dough mixed with volcanic ash rain. Restoration ended November 2011, earlier than expected

The concept design

In essence, Borobudur is a stupa which when viewed from above form a pattern of the Mandala. Mandala is a complex pattern composed of squares and concentric circles representing the cosmos or universe is commonly found in streams Wajrayana-Mahayana Buddhism. Ten yard owned illustrates clearly Borobudur Mahayana school of philosophy that simultaneously describes the concept of the universe cosmology, as well as the level of the mind in Buddhism. [49] Just as a book, Borobudur describes ten levels of Bodhisattva who must pass to reach the perfection of the Buddha. Sketch of the square base measuring 123 m (400 ft) on each side. The building has nine terraces, the lowest six square terraces and three circular top terrace.

In 1885, inadvertently found a hidden structure at the foot of Borobudur. [32], there are the hidden feet relief is about 160 of them are Karmawibhangga. On this panel there is a carved relief of characters that is an indication for the engraver to make a scene in relief images. [50] The foot is covered by the addition of the original stone structure that forms the court is quite broad, the real function remains a mystery. Initially suspected that the addition of these legs to prevent kelongsoran monuments. [50] Other theories propose that the addition of the foot is due to fault the original design of the foot, and not in accordance with Wastu Literature, India books on architecture and urban planning. [32] Whatever the reason for adding this leg , adding an additional foot and manufacture is done by carefully considering the grounds of religious, aesthetic, and technical.

The three levels of spiritual realm in Buddhist cosmology is:

Kamadhatu

The foot of Borobudur represents Kamadhatu, the world is still dominated by kama or "low desire". This section is mostly covered by a pile of rocks that allegedly made to strengthen the construction of the temple. At the foot of the enclosed original additional structure, there are 160 stories Karmawibhangga panel that is now hidden. A small part of an additional structure in the southeast corner is set aside so that people can still see some relief in this section. Andesite additional foot structure that covers the original legs has a volume of 13 000 cubic meters. [2]

Rupadhatu

Four steps to form a terrace in the hallway around the gallery walls are decorated with reliefs by the experts called Rupadhatu. The floor is rectangular. Rupadhatu consists of four tunnel relief to 1,300 images. Total length of 2.5 km relief with decorative carved panel 1212. Rupadhatu is a world that has been able to break free from passion, but still bound by the appearance and shape. This level represents the nature of which, between nature and the natural bottom up. In part this Rupadhatu statues of Buddha found in a niche or niches in the wall above the balcony railing or walkways. Originally there were 432 Buddhist statues in niches along the sides open out on the balcony railing. [2] On the balustrade there are subtle differences in design that symbolizes the transition from sphere to sphere Rupadhatu Kamadhatu; lowest balustrade crowned jewel, while the four levels of fencing stupika crowned top ledge (small stupas). Rectilinear part of the terraces is rich in decoration and relief carving

Arupadhatu

In contrast to the halls of the rich will Rupadhatu relief, from the fifth to the seventh floor the walls are not berelief. This level is called Arupadhatu (which means no tangible form or not). Circular floor plan. This level represents the nature of, where people are free from all desires and bond forms and shapes, but have not reached nirvana. In the court of the circle there are 72 small stupas berterawang two are arranged in three rows that surround one of the main stupa stupa. Small bell-shaped stupa is organized into three terraces, each circle numbered 32, 24, and 16 (total 72 stupas). Two lowest terrace stupanya larger rhombic hole, one stupanya top terrace is slightly smaller and square box-shaped hole. Buddha statues are placed inside the stupa is covered with holes like a cage. From outside the statues were still dim. Intelligent design is to explain the concept of transition to a state without a form, the Buddha statue is there but invisible.

Highest levels form a perfectly illustrates the lack of a stupa represented the largest and highest. Stupa depicted plain without holes. In the largest stupa is a statue of Buddha was found incomplete or also known as Buddha is not completed, the disalahsangkakan as sculpture 'Adibuddha', but through further research there is never a statue in the main stupa, statues are not finished it was a mistake pemahatnya in ancient times. According to the belief that one statue in the manufacturing process is not undermined. Archaeological excavations carried out in the courtyard of the temple was discovered many statues like this. The main stupa is believed to be left blank means the highest wisdom, which is kasunyatan, and the absence of perfect silence where the soul of man is not bound to desire, desire, and the shape and free from the cycle of samsara.

Structure

Stone lions guard the gate

Carving a giant shower head drainage

Borobudur temple there is a cross-section ratio of 4:6:9 between the legs, body, and head

Borobudur to climb the ladder through a series of arches carved Kala-Makara

About 55,000 cubic meters of andesite stone quarry and transported from place Penatahan to build this monument. [51] The stone is cut in a certain size, transported to the site and put together without using cement. Borobudur structure does not use cement at all, but the interlock system (another key) that is like Lego blocks that can be attached without adhesives. These stones are put together with the bulge and the right hole and fit one another, and form "dove tail" which locks the two blocks of stone. Relief was made at the site after the building structure and the wall was completed.

This monument is equipped with an adequate drainage system for areas with high rainfall. To prevent inundation and flooding, 100 showers installed in each corner, each with a unique design stage or form of the giant makara head.

Borobudur temple is very different from other designs, the temple was not built on a flat surface, but above the natural dunes. However, the construction technique is similar to other temples in Java. Borobudur has no cult spaces as other temples. That there are long passages which are narrow roads. The hallways surrounding the walled temple level by level. In general design similar to a pyramid Borobudur terraces. In the halls of the Buddhist is expected to perform ceremonial walk around the temple to the right. Borobudur may initially serve more as a stupa, or temple than the temple. [51] Stupa is intended as a shrine to the glory of Buddha. Sometimes the stupa was built as a symbol of honor and glorification of the Buddha. While the shrine or temple functions as a house of worship. Intricate design of this monument shows that this building is a building of places of worship. Form of the building without room and terrace terraced structure is believed to be the development of form punden staircase, which is a form of architecture from prehistoric native Indonesia.

According to local legend architect designer named Gunadharma Borobudur, little is known about this mysterious architect. [52] His name is more based on fairy tales and legends of Java and not based on historical inscriptions. Gunadharma legends associated with folklore about Menoreh hills resembling the body lay. Local tale is told that the body is lying Gunadharma turned into the ranks of Menoreh hills, of course the legend is just fiction and fairy tales.

Borobudur design using the tuning unit of measurement, ie the length between the end of the line of human facial hair on the forehead to the tip of the chin, or span the distance between the tip of the thumb with the tip of your little finger when the hand is fully developed. [53] Of course this unit is relative and differs slightly between individuals, but this unit remains in this monument. Research in 1977 revealed the ratio of 4:6:9 were found in this monument. Architects used this formula to determine the exact dimensions of a fractal geometry self-similar repetition in the design of Borobudur. [53] [54] ratio is also found in mathematical engineering and Pawon Mendut nearby. Archaeologists believe that the ratio of 4:6:9 and a tuning unit has the function and meaning of the calendar, astronomy, and cosmology. The same thing applies in the temples of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. [52]

Building structure can be divided into three parts: the base (foot), body, and the summit. [52] Basic measuring 123 × 123 m (403.5 × 403.5 ft) with a height of 4 m (13 feet). [51] The temple consists of five shelf terrace decreasing square on it. The first terrace back 7 m (23 ft) from the base of the terrace. Each of the next terrace down 2 m (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow passage at each level. The upper part consists of three circular terraces, each level of the shore line of effigies berterawang arranged concentrically. The main stupa there are the largest in the middle; the shoots reach a height of 35 m (110 ft) from ground level. The original height of Borobudur including chattra (umbrella stacking three) which is now released is 42 m (140 ft). Appliances located in the center of the four sides of the wind that brings visitors to the top of the monument through the arch gate guarded by a series of 32 stone lions. Wicket gate at the top of Kala carved doors and carved center vacant makara prominent on both sides. Kala-Makara motif commonly encountered in the door of the temple architecture in Java. The main door is located on the east side, as well as a starting point to read the story of relief. This ladder is connected with a straight on the hillside stairs that connects the temple with the surrounding plains.

Relief

Borobudur sculpture has a subtlety of style and aesthetic tastes of elegant

Location of relief stories of Buddhist scripture on the walls of Borobudur

On the temple walls at every level - except on the terraces Arupadhatu - carved panels of bas-reliefs are made with great accuracy and fine. [55] Relief and decorative patterns Borobudur naturalist style with ideal proportions and refined aesthetic taste. These reliefs are very beautiful, even regarded as the most elegant and graceful in the world of Buddhist art. [56] Relief Borobudur Indian art discipline as well as a variety of posture has a specific meaning or aesthetic value. Reliefs noble human form as a hermit, king and noble women, angel atapun creature like a god to achieve the degree of purity, such as tare and boddhisatwa, often depicted with the body position tribhanga. These postures are called "three curves" that is curved or bent slightly at the neck, hips, and ankles with only the body weight resting on one leg, while the other leg resting dilekuk. A flexible body position implies elegance, such as a standing figure of an angel with an attitude Surasundari tribhanga body clutching long-stemmed lotus. [57]

Borobudur reliefs showing many images, such as human figures both nobles, commoners, or a hermit, a variety of plants and animals, as well as displays of traditional vernacular building form the archipelago. Borobudur is like a book like that record various aspects of ancient Javanese society. Many archaeologists researching past life in ancient Java and the archipelago centuries-8-9 and to look at and refer to the carved reliefs of Borobudur. The stage-house, barn, palaces and temples, the form of jewelry, clothing and weaponry, various plants and wildlife, as well as a means of transportation, it was noted by the researchers. One of them is a relief depicting the famous Borobudur ship. [58] bercadik typical wooden boat show this archipelago of ancient maritime culture. Ark replica of Borobudur reliefs made by Ocean Mercury is stored in the Museum, located on the north Borobudur. [59]

These reliefs read off clockwise or mapradaksina called the Old Javanese language derived from Sanskrit meaning is daksina the east. These reliefs variety of story content, among other reliefs Jataka stories. Reading of the stories are always the relief begins, and ends on the east side of the gate at every level, starting on the left and right ends of the gate. So obviously that the east is a staircase up the real (primary) and to the top of the temple, it means that the temple facing the east while the other sides of similar right.

In sequence, the story of the temple reliefs significant briefly as follows:

Karmawibhangga

One of the temple wall carvings at Borobudur Karmawibhangga (southeast corner of the floor 0)

In accordance with the symbolic meaning of the foot of the temple, reliefs that decorate the walls of a hidden shelf illustrates the law of karma. Karmawibhangga is a manuscript that describes the doctrine of karma, the cause and effect of good and evil deeds. Rows of relief is not a story of the series (serial), but in every picture illustrates a story that has a causal relationship. Relief is not just to give an overview of human misconduct penalties will be accompanied by acquired, but also a man of good works and merit. As a whole is a depiction of human life within the circle of birth - life - death (samsara) that never ends, and the Buddhist religion is exactly what will end the chain to get to perfection. Now only the southeastern part of the open and visible to the end. Photo Karmawibhangga complete relief can be seen in the Museum Karmawibhangga on the north side of the temple of Borobudur.

Lalitawistara

Prince Siddhartha Gautama shaved his head and became a hermit

History is a depiction of the Buddha in a row of reliefs (but not a complete history) that starts from the Buddha's descent from Tushita heaven, and ends with the first sermon in the Deer Park near the city of Banaras. These reliefs lined the stairs on the south side, after a row exceeded the relief of 27 frames starting from the east side of the stairs. To-27 frames that describe the activity, both in heaven and in the world, as a preparation to welcome the presence of the Bodhisattvas as the last incarnation of the Buddha. The reliefs depict the birth of the Buddha in this arcapada as Prince Siddhartha, the son of King Suddhodana and Empress Maya of Kapilavastu Affairs. Relief amounted to 120 frames, which ended with the first sermon, which is symbolically expressed as the Turning of the Wheel of Dharma, the teachings of the Buddha is called dharma also means "law", while symbolized as a wheel of dharma.

Jataka and Awadana

Jataka are stories about the Buddha was born as Prince Siddharta before. Protrusion of contents is the subject of good works, such as self-sacrificing attitude and helpfulness that distinguishes the Bodhisattvas of any other creature. Some of the Jataka stories featuring the story of fable story involving animal characters who behave and think like humans. Indeed, the collection service or a good deed is a preparatory stage in the effort to the level of Buddhahood.

While Awadana, basically almost the same as the Jataka but the culprit is not the Bodhisattvas, but other people and the stories collected in the book Diwyawadana meaning noble godlike, and the book Awadana Awadanasataka or a hundred stories. In the reliefs of Borobudur and Awadana Jataka, treated equally, meaning that they occur in the same row without distinction. The set of the best known of the life of the Bodhisattvas is Jatakamala or strands of Jataka stories, Aryasura poet who lived in the 4th century AD.

Gandawyuha

A row of reliefs adorn the walls of the hall-2, is the story of a wandering Sudhana tirelessly in his quest for knowledge about the Supreme Truth by Sudhana. Description of the frame 460 based on the Mahayana Buddhist scripture entitled Gandawyuha, and for the lid on the story of another Bhadracari

Buddha statue

A statue of Buddha in the stupa berterawang

In addition to the buddha in the form of Buddhist cosmology carved in the wall, there are many statues at Borobudur Buddha sitting cross-legged in the lotus position and displays the mudra, or symbolic hand a certain attitude. Buddha statue with a height of 1.5 meters was carved out of andesite rock materials. [2]

Buddha statue in the recesses in the Rupadhatu, governed by a row at the outer side of the balustrade. Diminishing in number at the top. Balustrade of the first row consists of 104 niches, the second line of 104 niches, recesses 88 third row, fourth row 72 niches, recesses 64 and the fifth row. Total there are 432 statues of Buddha at the Rupadhatu. [1] In the Arupadhatu (three circular courtyard), Buddha statues placed in stupas berterawang (cavities). In the court of the first round there are 32 stupas, the second court of the 24 stupas, and the third courtyard there are 16 stupas, all of them a total of 72 stupas. [1] Of the original number as many as 504 Buddha statues, over 300 have been damaged (mostly headless) and 43 missing ( since the discovery of this monument, head of the buddha is often stolen as collector's item, mostly by foreign museums). [60]

On the face of all this buddha statues look similar, but there are subtle differences among them, namely the attitude of mudras or hand positions. There are five classes of mudra: North, East, South, West, and Central, all based on five main directions of the compass according to Mahayana teachings. Fourth balustrade has four mudras: North, East, South, and West, where each of the statues buddha mudra facing the direction the show is typical. Buddha statues on the balustrade of the fifth and buddha statues inside the 72 stupas berterawang in the court of the display mudra: Middle or Center. Each mudra symbolizes the five Dhyani Buddhas, each with its own symbolic meaning

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